Best of heart failure

25 been hospitalized with heart failure in the past 12 months. Ivabradine significantly reduced the relative risk of hospital- ization for worsening HF or CV death (RRR 18%, p < 0.0001); the significance is driven mostly by a reduction of rehospitalization. HFNEF describes a heterogeneous pool of patients that make about 50% of HF patients with a unique set of patho- physiologic mechanisms. These patients are typically older with hypertension, obesity, renal failure, anemia, and atrial fibrillation and are more likely to be females. There is also a high incidence of diabetes and coronary artery disease in these patients [ 7 ]. In contrast to patients with impaired left ventricular EF, HFNEF patients have non-dilated left ven- tricular cavity size, concentric instead of eccentric left ven- tricular hypertrophy, and a normal EF [ 34 ]. It is controversial whether LV systolic function is truly normal in patients with HFNEF because EF is an imprecise measure of left ventricular systolic function. However, inva- sive conductance studies suggested from pressure–volume loops that end-systolic pressure–volume relationship is steeper or normal in HFNEF suggesting a normal systolic function. On the other hand, end-diastolic pressure–volume relationship is shifted leftward and upward indicating dia- stolic dysfunction [ 35 , 36 ]. Diastolic dysfunction is not uncommon among elderly patients estimated at about 5.6%, but only 1% has HFNEF [ 37 ]. In one study, the product of left ventricular mass index and left atrial volume has the highest predictive accuracy for HFNEF [ 38 ]. In addition to ventricular stiffness, arterial stiffness has also been suggested to contribute to HFNEF, and the combined ventricular–arterial stiffness leads to an exaggerated hypertensive response after small increases in LV end-diastolic volume [ 7 ]. 24.3 ACC/AHA Classification of Congestive Heart Failure The current ACC/AHA classification for CHF [ 3 ] is comple- mentary to the New York Heart Classification (NYHC) [ 39 ] and helps define the evolution of symptoms of patients with CHF. In addition, the ACC/AHA classification focuses on the risk factors for CHF by identifying patients who have risk factors for CHF. This classification includes four stages of CHF: Stage A: Asymptomatic patients with no left ventricular dys- function but are at risk of developing CHF including patients with coronary artery disease, hypertension, dia- betes mellitus, family history of cardiomyopathy, and the metabolic syndrome. Stage A is not represented in the NYHC. Stage B : Asymptomatic patients with left ventricular dys- function. This is equivalent to Class I of the NYHC. Stage C : Symptom ventricular dysf Class II and Clas ple in the United Stage D : Symptom Class IV of the in the United Sta 24.4 Pharma Heart Fa 24.4.1 Heart Fai Fraction Dysfunct As noted above, o nisms of HFNEF is with diastolic dysf patients with HF a HFNEF. “True” H nary artery disease, strictive cardiomyo and right-sided fail mia, thyrotoxicosis carditis, or intracar Diastolic dysfun ditions including cor lar disease, age [ 4 secondary to intrace [ 42 ], and hypertrop ARB (losartan) has but did not change l Isolated diastolic identified in 11.5% ease with the use o atrial size and N-t (NT-proBNP) appe function [ 45 ]. Also, are seen with differe Recently an algo posed by the work Cardiology [ 47 ]. In toms of HF, normal with evidence of a distensibility, and d of HFNEF if one of PCWP > 12 mmHg ing, E/E ′ > 15 by ti DopplerwithaBNP mL or BNP > 200 and LVH or atrial mal pulmonary ven 24 Evidence-Based Management of the Patient with Congestive Heart Failure 465 with standard care alone in patients with acute decompensate heart failure. Am J Emerg Med. 2005;23:327–31. 148. Yancy CW, Saltzberg MT, Berkowitz RL, et al. Safety and fea- sibility of using serial infusions of nesiritide for heart failure in an outpatient setting (from the FUSION I trial). Am J Cardiol. 2004;94:595–601. 149. Sackner-Bernstein JD, Kowalski M, Fox M, Aaronson K. Short- term risk of death after treatment with nesiritide for decompen- sated heart failure: a pooled analysis of randomized controlled trials. JAMA. 2005;293:1900–5. 150. Rose EA, GelijnsAC, MoskowitzAJ, et al. Randomized Evaluation of Mechanical Assistance for the Treatment of Congestive Heart Failure (REMATCH) Study Group. Long-term mechanical left ventricular assistance for end-stage heart ailure. N Engl J M d. 2001;345:1435–43. 151. Stevenson LW, Miller LW, Desvigne-Nickens P, et al. REMATCH Investigators. Left ventricular assist device as destination for patients undergoing intravenous inotropic therapy: a subset analysis from REMATCH (Randomiz d Evaluation of Mechanical Assistance in Treatment of Chronic Heart Failure). Circulation. 2004;110:975–81. 152. Long JW, Kfoury AG, Slaughter MS, et al. Long-term destination therapy with the HeartMate XVE left ventricular assist device: improved outcomes since the REMATCH study. Congest Heart F il. 2005;11:133–8. 153. Francis GS. Pathophysiology of chronic heart failure. Am J Med. 2001;110(Suppl 7A):37S–46S. 24 Evidence-Based Management of the Patient with Congestive Heart Failure